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Cross-Dataset Generalization for Human Behavior Modeling

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Overview; Data; Code

Overview of The Contributions of This Work. We systematically evaluate cross-dataset generalizability of 19 algorithms: 9 prior behavior modeling algorithm for depression detection, 8 recent domain generalization algorithms, and 2 two new algorithms proposed in this paper. Our open-source platform GLOBEM consolidates these 19 algorithms and support using, developing, evaluating various algorithms.

There is a growing body of research revealing that longitudinal passive sensing data from smartphones and wearable devices can capture daily behavior signals for human behavior modeling, such as depression detection. Most prior studies build and evaluate machine learning models using data collected from a single population. However, to ensure that a behavior model can work for a larger group of users, its generalizability needs to be verified on multiple datasets from different populations. We present the first work evaluating cross-dataset generalizability of longitudinal behavior models, using depression detection as an application. We collect multiple longitudinal passive mobile sensing datasets with over 500 users from two institutes over a two-year span, leading to four institute-year datasets. Using the datasets, we closely re-implement and evaluated nine prior depression detection algorithms. Our experiment reveals the lack of model generalizability of these methods. We also implement eight recently popular domain generalization algorithms from the machine learning community. Our results indicate that these methods also do not generalize well on our datasets, with barely any advantage over the naive baseline of guessing the majority. We then present two new algorithms with better generalizability. Our new algorithm, Reorder, significantly and consistently outperforms existing methods on most cross-dataset generalization setups. However, the overall advantage is incremental and still has great room for improvement. Our analysis reveals that the individual differences (both within and between populations) may play the most important role in the cross-dataset generalization challenge. Finally, we provide an open-source benchmark platform GLOBEM – short for Generalization of LOngitudinal BEhavior Modeling – to consolidate all 19 algorithms. GLOBEM can support researchers in using, developing, and evaluating different longitudinal behavior modeling methods. We call for researchers’ attention to model generalizability evaluation for future longitudinal human behavior modeling studies.

Xuhai Xu, Xin Liu, Han Zhang, Weichen Wang, Subigya Nepal, Yasaman S. Sefidgar, Woosuk Seo, Kevin S. Kuehn, Jeremy F. Huckins, Margaret E. Morris, Paula S. Nurius, Eve A. Riskin, Shwetak N. Patel, Tim Althoff, Andrew Campbell, Anind K. Dey, and Jennifer Mankoff. GlOBEM: Cross-Dataset Generalization of Longitudinal Human Behavior Modeling. Proc. ACM Interact. Mob. Wearable Ubiquitous Technol. 6(4): 190:1-190:34 (2022).

Xuhai Xu, Han Zhang, Yasaman S. Sefidgar, Yiyi Ren, Xin Liu, Woosuk Seo, Jennifer Brown, Kevin S. Kuehn, Mike A. Merrill, Paula S. Nurius, Shwetak N. Patel, Tim Althoff, Margaret Morris, Eve A. Riskin, Jennifer Mankoff, Anind K. Dey:
GLOBEM Dataset: Multi-Year Datasets for Longitudinal Human Behavior Modeling Generalization. NeurIPS 2022

PSST: Enabling Blind or Visually Impaired Developers to Author Sonifications of Streaming Sensor Data

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Venkatesh Potluri, John Thompson, James Devine, Bongshin Lee, Nora Morsi, Peli De Halleux, Steve Hodges, and Jennifer Mankoff. 2022. PSST: Enabling Blind or Visually Impaired Developers to Author Sonifications of Streaming Sensor Data. In Proceedings of the 35th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology (UIST ’22). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, Article 46, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1145/3526113.3545700

We present the first toolkit that equips blind and visually impaired (BVI) developers with the tools to create accessible data displays. Called PSST (Physical Computing Streaming Sensor data Toolkit), it enables BVI developers to understand the data generated by sensors from a mouse to a micro: bit physical computing platform. By assuming visual abilities, earlier efforts to make physical computing accessible fail to address the need for BVI developers to access sensor data. PSST enables BVI developers to understand real-time, real-world sensor data by providing control over what should be displayed, as well as when to display and how to display sensor data. PSST supports filtering based on raw or calculated values, highlighting, and transformation of data. Output formats include tonal sonification, nonspeech audio files, speech, and SVGs for laser cutting. We validate PSST through a series of demonstrations and a user study with BVI developers.

The demo video can be found here: https://youtu.be/UDIl9krawxg.

Rapid Convergence: The Outcomes of Making PPE during a Healthcare Crisis

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Kelly Avery Mack, Megan Hofmann, Udaya Lakshmi, Jerry Cao, Nayha Auradkar, Rosa I. Arriaga, Scott E. Hudson, Jennifer Mankoff. Rapid Convergence: The Outcomes of Making PPE During a Healthcare Crisis. [Link to the paper]

The U.S. National Institute of Health (NIH) 3D Print Exchange is a public, open-source repository for 3D printable medical device designs with contributions from clinicians, expert-amateur makers, and people from industry and academia. In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the NIH formed a collection to foster submissions of low-cost, locally-manufacturable personal protective equipment (PPE). We evaluated the 623 submissions in this collection to understand: what makers contributed, how they were made, who made them, and key characteristics of their designs. We found an immediate design convergence to manufacturing-focused remixes of a few initial designs affiliated with NIH partners and major for-profit groups. The NIH worked to review safe, effective designs but was overloaded by manufacturing-focused design adaptations. Our work contributes insights into: the outcomes of distributed, community-based medical making; the features that the community accepted as “safe” making; and how platforms can support regulated maker activities in high-risk domains.

Personalized behavior modeling: depression detection

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Xuhai Xu, Prerna Chikersal, Janine M. Dutcher, Yasaman S. Sefidgar, Seo Woosuk, Michael J. Tumminia, Daniella K. Villalba, Sheldon Cohen,
Kasey G. Creswell, Creswell, J. David, Afsaneh Doryab, Paula S. Nurius, Eve Riskin, Anind K. Dey, & Jennifer Mankoff. Leveraging Collaborative-Filtering for Personalized Behavior Modeling: A Case Study of Depression Detection among College Students. Proc. ACM interact. mob. wearable ubiquitous technol., Article 41. (March 21) 27pages.

The prevalence of mobile phones and wearable devices enables the passive capturing and modeling of human behavior at an unprecedented resolution and scale. Past research has demonstrated the capability of mobile sensing to model aspects of physical health, mental health, education, and work performance, etc. However, most of the algorithms and models proposed in previous work follow a one-size-fits-all (i.e., population modeling) approach that looks for common behaviors amongst all users, disregarding the fact that individuals can behave very differently, resulting in reduced model performance. Further, black-box models are often used that do not allow for interpretability and human behavior understanding. We present a new method to address the problems of personalized behavior classification and interoperability, and apply it to depression detection among college students. Inspired by the idea of collaborative-filtering, our method is a type of memory-based learning algorithm. It leverages the relevance of mobile-sensed behavior features among individuals to calculate personalized relevance weights, which are used to impute missing data and select features according to a specific modeling goal (e.g., whether the student has depressive symptoms) in different time epochs, i.e., times of the day and days of the week. It then compiles features from epochs using majority voting to obtain the final prediction. We apply our algorithm on a depression detection dataset collected from first-year college students with low data-missing rates and show that our method outperforms the state-of the-art machine learning model by 5.1% in accuracy and 5.5% in F1 score. We further verify the pipeline-level generalizability of our approach by achieving similar results on a second dataset, with an average improvement of 3.4% across performance metrics. Beyond achieving better classification performance, our novel approach is further able to generate personalized interpretations of the models for each individual. These interpretations are supported by existing depression-related literature and can potentially inspire automated and personalized depression intervention design in the future.

Distress and resilience among marginalized undergraduates

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Nurius, P. S., Sefidgar, Y. S., Kuehn, K. S, Jake, X, Zhang, H., Browning, A., Riskin, E., Dey, A. K., & Mankoff, J.  Distress among undergraduates: Marginality, stressors and resilience supports. Journal of American College Health, 1-9.

Stress and related mental health struggles are of growing concern at colleges and universities across the country and internationally, with some evidence of levels higher than general population peers. The university experience can pose considerable strain on students, in some cases adding to early and current life stressors, and, if not mitigated, can lead to impaired well-being and academic success/retention.

This study provides a 2019 data snapshot of multiple stressor effects on early-stage students, resilience resources (or the lack thereof) that can mitigate these effects, and sociodemographic characteristics reflecting minoritized identities. Participants were 253 first- and second-year undergraduate students (age =18.76; 49.80% male, 69% students of color) enrolled at the University of Washington.

Multivariate analysis demonstrated significant associations between greater stress exposures and lower levels of resilience resources with each of three mental health indicators—perceived stress (intensity of experienced stress), depression, and anxiety. Stressors such as poor physical health, discrimination exposure, experiencing one or more marginalizing status (e.g., first generation student, having disabilities, sexual minority), and using maladaptive coping strategies (e.g, denial, self-blame) significantly accounted for each of the mental health indicators. Prior stressors such as adverse childhood experiences and other life and academic adversities were also significantly correlated with the mental health variables.

Race/ethnicity was less clearly patterned, although students of Asian descent reported significantly greater depression and anxiety, and females reported higher levels on all distress forms. In terms of resilience supports, those reporting greater social support and perception of oneself as a “bounce back” kind of person reported lesser psychological distress and these variables reduced the effects of stressors. Assessment of student well-being from this same project during the 2020 COVID-19 context indicated that students entering the pandemic with mental health vulnerabilities experienced significantly greater psychological distress and academic strain as the university pivoted toward remote instruction, signaling highly consequential differences (Morris et al., 2021)

These results support the value of “poly-strengths” –multiple forms of resilience- fostering resources–for mitigating the effects of stressors on psychological distress. College leaders are noting increases in the severity of students’ mental health concerns and demand for services, changing the roles of campus counseling centers, and requiring new institutional responses. Better understanding cumulative stress/resilience resource profiles, particularly among marginalized students and those experiencing discrimination, can help universities in prioritizing institutional support responses toward prevention, strengthening resilience, and mitigating psychological distress.

COVID-19 and Remote Learning for Students with Disabilities

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Han Zhang, Margaret E. Morris, Paula S. Nurius, Kelly Mack, Jennifer Brown, Kevin S. Kuehn, Yasaman S. Sefidgar, Xuhai Xu, Eve A. Riskin, Anind K. Dey and Jennifer Mankoff. Impact of Online Learning in the Context of COVID-19 on Undergraduates with Disabilities and Mental Health Concerns. ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing (TACCESS).

The COVID-19 pandemic upended college education and the experiences of students due to the rapid and uneven shift to online learning. This study examined the experiences of students with disabilities with online learning, with a consideration of surrounding stressors such as financial pressures. In a mixed method approach, we compared 28 undergraduate students with disabilities(including mental health concerns) to their peers during 2020, to assess differences and similarities in their educational concerns, stress levels and COVID-19 related adversities. We found that students with disabilities entered the Spring quarter of 2020 with significantly higher concerns about classes going online, and reported more recent negative life events than other students. These differences between the two groups diminished three months later with the exception of recent negative life events. For a fuller understanding of students’ experiences, we conducted qualitative analysis of open ended interviews. We examined both positive and negative experiences with online learning among students with disabilities and mental health concerns. Online learning enabled greater access – e.g., reducing the need for travel to campus–alongside ways in which online learning impeded academic engagement–e.g., reducing interpersonal interaction. Learning systems need to continue to meet the diverse and dynamic needs of students with disabilities.

Maptimizer

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Megan Hofmann, Kelly Mack, Jessica Birchfield, Jerry Cao, Autumn G. Hughes, Shriya Kurpad, Kathryn J. Lum, Emily Warnock, Anat Caspi, Scott E. Hudson, Jennifer Mankoff:
Maptimizer: Using Optimization to Tailor Tactile Maps to Users Needs. CHI 2022: 592:1-592:15 [pdf]

Tactile maps can help people who are blind or have low vision navigate and familiarize themselves with unfamiliar locations. Ideally, tactile maps are created by considering an individual’s unique needs and abilities because of their limited space for representation. However, significant customization is not supported by existing tools for generating tactile maps. We present the Maptimizer system which generates tactile maps that are customized to a user’s preferences and requirements, while making simplified and easy to read tactile maps. Maptimizer uses a two stage optimization process to pair representations with geographic information and tune those representations to present that information more clearly. In a user study with six blind/low-vision participants, Maptimizer helped participants more successfully and efficiently identify locations of interest in unknown areas. These results demonstrate the utility of optimization techniques and generative design in complex accessibility domains that require significant customization by the end user.

A system diagram showing the maptimizer data flow setup. The inputs are geography sets, representations options, and user preferences. Geography types and representation options are paired and tuned using an optimizer. The output is a tactile map.

Computational Design of Knit Templates

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We present an interactive design system for knitting that allows users to create template patterns that can be fabricated using an industrial knitting machine. Our interactive design tool is novel in that it allows direct control of key knitting design axes we have identified in our formative study and does so consistently across the variations of an input parametric template geometry. This is achieved with two key technical advances. First, we present an interactive meshing tool that lets users build a coarse quadrilateral mesh that adheres to their knit design guidelines. This solution ensures consistency across the parameter space for further customization over shape variations and avoids helices, promoting knittability. Second, we lift and formalize low-level machine knitting constraints to the level of this coarse quad mesh. This enables us to not only guarantee hand- and machine-knittability, but also provides automatic design assistance through auto-completion and suggestions. We show the capabilities through a set of fabricated examples that illustrate the effectiveness of our approach in creating a wide variety of objects and interactively exploring the space of design variations.

Benjamin Jones, Yuxuan Mei, Haisen Zhao, Taylor Gotfrid, Jennifer Mankoff, Adriana Schulz:
Computational Design of Knit Templates. ACM Trans. Graph. 41(2): 16:1-16:16 (2022)

Four pink knit dresses mounted on four mannekins. each showing different styles of neckline and skirt. Behind each dress is the pattern used to create that dress. The shape of the quads in the pattern demonstrate their relationship to typical knitting patterns -- for example a collar knit in the round has quads that narrow as they go up.

Our interactive design system helps users explore key design axes for knitting to generate highly customized patterns from input shape templates; e.g., a seamless yoke dress with princess-cut apparent seams (a), and drop shoulder dresses with textures on the arms and skirt (b–d). The output of our system is a knit pattern template that lets users vary the shape while preserving the design, for example, creating a child’s dress with short sleeves (d) that matches an adult dress (b), or varying skirt texture and angle, and sleeve knitting direction (c). The system guarantees that all results and variations are machine knittable.

A diagram showing four differently shaped duck faces (a) which all have the same mesh, which can react easily to different shapes by adjusting quad shapes. The final product of a duck with a short, and a long, snout, is shown knitted in lavendar at the right.

Overview of our framework. (a) Triangle meshes from a parametric template (the system deals with a single mesh at a time). (b) Input triangle mesh with user annotations of composition, layout, and direction guidelines. (c) Generated quad mesh patches, which are consistent across template variations. (d) Quad mesh annotated for knitting the body tube in the round using short rows to curve the tube. Blue lines indicate seams. The same design applies to all template variations (two shown here). (e) Duck knit with short rows. (f ) Quad mesh annotated with different textures and orientations; the body is knit as seamed sheets with decreases. (g) Duck knit with textures and a large head from template (f ).

TypeOut: Just-in-Time Self-Affirmation for Reducing Phone Use

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Smartphone overuse is related to a variety of issues such as lack of sleep and anxiety. We explore the application of Self-Affirmation Theory on smartphone overuse intervention in a just-in-time manner. We present TypeOut, a just-in-time intervention technique that integrates two components: an in-situ typing-based unlock process to improve user engagement, and self-affirmation-based typing content to enhance effectiveness. We hypothesize that the integration of typing and self-affirmation content can better reduce smartphone overuse. We conducted a 10-week within-subject field experiment (N=54) and compared TypeOut against two baselines: one only showing the self-affirmation content (a common notification-based intervention), and one only requiring typing non-semantic content (a state-of-the-art method). TypeOut reduces app usage by over 50%, and both app opening frequency and usage duration by over 25%, all significantly outperforming baselines. TypeOut can potentially be used in other domains where an intervention may benefit from integrating self-affirmation exercises with an engaging just-in-time mechanism.

Typeout: Leveraging just-in-time self-affirmation for smartphone overuse reduction. Xuhai Xu, Tianyuan Zou, Xiao Han, Yanzhang Li, Ruolin Wang, Tianyi Yuan, Yuntao Wang, Yuanchun Shi, Jennifer Mankoff,and Anind K. Dey. 2022. In Proceedings of the 2022 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI ’22). ACM, New York, NY, USA.

Anticipate and Adjust: Cultivating Access in Human-Centered Methods

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In order for “human-centered research” to include all humans, we need to make sure that research practices are accessible for both participants and researchers with disabilities. Yet, people rarely discuss how to make common methods accessible. We interviewed 17 accessibility experts who were researchers or community organizers about their practices. Our findings emphasize the importance of considering accessibility at all stages of the research process and across different dimensions of studies like communication, materials, time, and space. We explore how technology or processes could reflect a norm of accessibility and offer a practical structure for planning accessible research.

Anticipate and Adjust: Cultivating Access in Human-Centered Methods. Kelly Mac, Emma J. McDonnell, Venkatesh Potluri, Maggie Xu, Jailyn Zabala, Jeffrey P. Bigham, Jennifer Mankoff, and Cynthia L. Bennett. CHI 2022